Rave

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Rave
A warehouse rave.
Other names	Rave Culture, Raver
Decade of origin	Late-1980s
Key motifs	Psychedelic patterns, neon lights, glowsticks, kandi, pacifiers, smoke, smiley face, PLUR hand sign, fluorescent clothing
Key colours	Neon, black, fluorescent
Key values	Individuality, freedom, community, self-expression, hedonism, PLUR (Peace, Love, Unity, Respect)
Related aesthetics	Directly Related: Acid House Berlin Techno Fashion Club Gabber Kandi Raver Krocha Madchester New Beat Ruta Destroy Tecktonik Wixa Cultural Overlap: Acid Design Cyberdelic Cybergoth Cyberpop Cyberpunk Disco Electroclash Electronic Body Music Furry Glitch Art Goth New Rave Northern Soul Psychedelia Rivethead Scene Xpiritualism Y2K Futurism
Related media	Trainspotting (film), Human Traffic (film), Groove Armada (band), The Prodigy (band)

Rave refers to a dance party held in a variety of venues, from warehouses and clubs to private homes and open fields. These events typically feature DJs playing a range of electronic music genres, including drum and bass, dubstep, techno, house, trance, and hardcore. Raves are characterized by their high-energy atmosphere, powerful sound systems, and immersive light shows, often accompanied by laser displays, projected images, and fog machines.

Originating in the late-1980s, the rave scene gained momentum in the early 1990s, associated with illegal events held in unconventional spaces. Early raves were heavily influenced by the acid house movement and bands like The Prodigy, with parties frequently taking place in squats and abandoned buildings. Well-known locations like the Dole House in Peckham and Groove Park in Camberwell hosted significant gatherings, with Groove Park even operating as an art collective with full moon parties organized by Pete Marland.

Some raves remain small-scale gatherings, but others have evolved into large-scale festivals, such as the Castlemorton Common Festival in 1992. These events may feature multiple DJs and dance areas, lasting for 24 hours or more. The rave scene has faced challenges from law enforcement due to associations with illegal drug use, including MDMA, amphetamine, LSD, and others. This has led to raids and anti-rave laws in many countries, often attributed to a moral panic surrounding rave culture. Raves also frequently utilize non-authorized venues, such as squat parties, unused warehouses, and aircraft hangars.

The term "raver" refers to individuals who participate in rave culture. While there is not a single "raver" aesthetic, certain trends and styles have emerged within the subculture, varying by region, music scene, and even individual venues. Early ravers, particularly in the United Kingdom, often wore baggy clothing and neon colors, reflecting the influence of the Madchester scene and the desire for comfortable attire for dancing. As rave culture evolved, fashion trends diversified, incorporating elements of cyberpunk, goth, and other subcultures.

In the United States, kandi, brightly colored beaded bracelets and necklaces, became a popular accessory, symbolizing the PLUR ethos (Peace, Love, Unity, Respect) often associated with the American rave scene. However, PLUR and kandi are less prevalent in European rave scenes. Regardless of regional differences, a sense of unity exists within the international rave scene.

History

Origins

The term "rave" has its roots in 1950s London, where it described the wild bohemian parties of the Soho beatnik scene. Jazz musician Mick Mulligan, known for his extravagant lifestyle, was even dubbed the "king of the ravers." In the early 1960s, the mod youth culture adopted the term to describe any lively party, with "ravers" being those who enjoyed and frequented these gatherings.

By the mid-1960s, "rave" was also associated with the garage rock and psychedelia scene, used to denote the energetic atmosphere of live performances. The term "rave-up" specifically referred to a climactic musical section characterized by increased intensity and instrumental solos.

Although the use of "rave" declined in the late 1960s with the rise of hippie culture, the Northern Soul movement of that era influenced elements of the later rave experience. Similar to DJs in later rave culture, Northern Soul DJs curated music to create euphoric experiences for dancers, influencing the development of club culture. Furthermore, Northern Soul dancers often favored loose-fitting clothing, a practical choice for energetic dancing.

While "rave" faded from mainstream use during the 1970s, the term underwent a revival in the late 1980s, possibly influenced by its use in Jamaica, to describe the emerging electronic music scene and its associated subculture. This revival also coincided with the increasing recognition of the "third place," a sociological concept describing a social environment separate from home and work, providing a space for social connection and release.

The origins of techno and house music, central to rave culture, can be traced to groups such as Kraftwerk and Afrika Bambaataa. This music, built on synthesized and amplified sounds, began to develop in urban centers including Detroit and Chicago. In Detroit, the prevalence of abandoned industrial spaces, such as warehouses and factories, provided settings for the emergence of the early rave scene. Simultaneously, in 1980s Chicago, acid house emerged, recognized as a direct precursor to techno. The Roland TB-303 synthesizer shaped the distinctive sound of acid house. Artists such as Juan Atkins, Kevin Saunderson, and Derrick May were instrumental in the development of the early Detroit techno scene, with Derrick May playing a role in exporting the music. The compilation "Techno: The New Dance Sound of Detroit" is considered a foundational document of the genre. Early "raves" took place in abandoned Detroit warehouses, with participants dancing to the repetitive rhythms of this electronic music. Collectives such as Underground Resistance continue to advocate for the original principles of techno.

Second Summer of Love and Madchester

In the mid-to-late 1980s, acid house music, originating in Chicago and Detroit, spread throughout the United Kingdom, particularly to cities such as Manchester and London. The term "rave" was adopted to describe the subculture that emerged from this movement, influenced by the party atmosphere of Ibiza.

Ravers dancing to acid house at London’s Astoria in 1988 (Photo: David Swindells)

London saw the opening of clubs such as Shoom and Trip, which introduced acid house to a wider audience. This period, known as the "Second Summer of Love," was characterized by increased club attendance and a perceived decrease in football hooliganism. However, police crackdowns on after-hours clubs led to the rise of warehouse parties, marking a development in the evolution of the modern rave.

Early raves were often organized informally, outside legal frameworks, with locations and times communicated through word-of-mouth or anonymous phone calls. These gatherings emphasized community and shared enjoyment. Promoters and organizers such as Sunrise and Revolution in Progress (RIP) staged larger events, which attracted media attention, frequently focusing on the association between these events and drug use, as well as perceived lawlessness. The use of ecstasy and LSD became linked to acid house events, fueling media sensationalism.

The term "rave" may have etymological connections to the French word "rêver," meaning "to dream," reflecting the trance-like state the music could induce and the use of psychoactive substances in a manner reminiscent of shamanic rituals to potentially facilitate altered states of consciousness. Anthropologists and cultural theorists have described the rave experience as a state of transcending the ordinary and achieving collective unity. The rave was often experienced as a collective event, with the shared experience going beyond the role of any individual DJ.

Manchester also embraced acid house culture, with venues such as the Thunderdome becoming centers for the scene. Producers such as Peter Ford created British acid house tracks. The genre gained popularity among football hooligans, and acid house venues sometimes provided spaces where rival gangs could temporarily converge peacefully. The influence of acid house extended into the "Madchester" movement, with bands like the Stone Roses and Happy Mondays incorporating elements of acid house into their music. The Stone Roses reportedly contributed to the popularization of raves by performing concerts in warehouse spaces, followed by DJ sets.

The Second Summer of Love, peaking in 1988 and 1989, saw an increase in unlicensed rave parties and the use of MDMA. The music of this era, primarily acid house and hip house, drew parallels with the Summer of Love in 1967. Pirate radio stations played a role in promoting the music and events. The smiley face became a symbol of the era, and loose-fitting clothing became popular among club-goers. Promoters used aesthetics like the smiley face to attract attendees to these gatherings.

Initially, ecstasy was perceived to contribute to euphoria and reduced aggression at these events. However, the British news media shifted to negative coverage, focusing on the association between ecstasy and raves.

Popularization

By the 1990s, electronic music genres, including acid, breakbeat, hardcore, drum and bass, and electronica, were featured at raves of various sizes. Mainstream events began to attract larger crowds. The term "rave parties" gained popularity in the media around the summer of 1989, although the rave atmosphere developed throughout the early 1990s. Raves spread to European cities such as Berlin, Milan, and Patras, often held in unconventional locations like basements, warehouses, and forests.

In the United Kingdom, politicians reacted negatively to the growing rave scene, imposing fines on promoters of unauthorized events. Increased police enforcement drove the rave scene away from urban centers and into rural areas. The term "rave" became associated with weekend parties held at locations along the M25 London orbital motorway, which encircled London and the surrounding counties. These locations included warehouses, industrial sites, fields, and country clubs. By this point, the rave phenomenon was also interpreted as a form of escapism from a dehumanized society, incorporating elements of cyberpunk and sci-fi counterculture.

The evolution of rave culture continued beyond the 1990s, with shifts in musical trends, technology, and social contexts influencing its expression. The rise of the internet and digital music distribution altered the organization and dissemination of rave music and events. While large-scale commercial raves and festivals became more prevalent, underground scenes persisted and evolved, characterized by an emphasis on the original values of community, DIY ethics, and a rejection of mainstream commercialization.

History by Region

Australia

In Australia, rave culture began in the late 1980s and early 1990s, with cities like Sydney and Melbourne becoming centers for the scene. The movement was characterized by a countercultural attitude, attracting a diverse crowd that included the gay community and those interested in underground electronic music. Early raves in Australia primarily took place in urban underground clubs and outdoor settings, with events like the 1991 Happy Valley festival. Unlike raves in America and Europe, the Australian scene was known for its lack of rigid boundaries.

The 1990s saw an expansion of the rave scene, with DJs and attendees from Europe and America participating. Empty warehouses were often used as venues due to a recession in Sydney. Parties were known for their eclectic music selections, ranging from commercial to hardcore sounds. The Happy Valley outdoor rave in 1991 marked a turning point, leading to increased mainstream attention. By 1994, the scene had grown to include a wider age range, from teenagers to adults. This expansion also brought changes to the music and atmosphere, with some DJs noting a shift towards faster, harder sounds and a darker vibe.

The Australian rave scene continues to evolve, with outdoor parties known as "bush doofs" being a contemporary manifestation. These events, often associated with psytrance music, are organized by underground crews and take place in remote bushland locations. These doofs are known for their acceptance of drug use, with attendees partaking in various substances in a communal setting. Music plays a central role, with DJs playing a mix of psytrance, techno, and drum and bass.

Rave parties in Australia began in the 1980s, similar to warehouse parties in Britain. Venues included warehouses, factories, and unconventional spaces like basketball gymnasiums and train stations. Outdoor raves were also common, with locations such as Sydney Park and Cataract Park being used. The mid-to-late 1990s saw a decline in rave attendance, partly attributed to the death of Anna Wood at a Sydney rave. This incident led to increased media attention on the connection between drug culture and the rave scene.

In the 2000s, the rave tradition continued in Melbourne with events like "Earthcore." Raves became more common in licensed venues, though large-scale events became less frequent. The 2010s saw a resurgence of the rave scene, particularly in Melbourne, with the "Melbourne Shuffle" dance trend and the opening of clubs like Bass Station and Hard Candy. Warehouse and outdoor raves continued to be held, sometimes attracting thousands of attendees.

Belgium

See also: Electronic Body Music and New Beat

The Belgian electronic music scene of the late-1980s and early-1990s played a key role in the development of rave culture and electronic music. In the late 1980s, the Belgian electronic scene was defined by Electronic Body Music (EBM) and New Beat.

EBM, with groups like Front 242, combined industrial and synth-punk elements with dance rhythms. Front 242 notably used the term "electronic body music" to describe their sound, solidifying the genre's name. Conversely, New Beat emerged from DJs slowing down Hi-NRG and EBM records. This evolved into a distinct genre, blending new wave, EBM, and hip-hop elements. The nightclub Ancienne Belgique is credited with the accidental creation of New Beat, when a DJ played an EBM record at a slower speed. Acts like Confetti's and Lords of Acid gained commercial success. New Beat also spawned subgenres like "hard beat" and "skizzo," which were precursors to Belgian techno.

In the early 1990s, New Beat transitioned into Belgian techno, sometimes referred to as "rave techno." This style, characterized by its harder and faster sound, heavily influenced the European rave scene. Artists like T99, with their track "Anasthasia," became influential. The work of Joey Beltram with R&S Records was also important in shaping the Belgian techno sound. Groups like Quadrophonia, with their 1991 single of the same name, also contributed to the growth of this genre.

Adding to these influences in the rave scene, Jumpstyle emerged in the late 1990s and gained popularity in the 2000s. Originating in Belgium, it found a larger audience in the Netherlands and across Western Europe. Initially a niche genre, it experienced a surge in popularity in the early 2000s. The genre is characterized by a tempo between 140 and 150 BPM, utilizing a 909 kick drum and drawing influences from tech-trance, hardstyle, gabber, and mákina. It also incorporates elements of hard house and electro house. The style notably gained influence from hardstyle, integrating pitched basslines, complex distortion, and square waveform synthesizers. The genre's popularity peaked around 2007 and 2008, driven by music videos from artists like Scooter.

Canada

The Canadian rave scene has been a notable part of youth culture, particularly in the 1990s and early 2000s. One of the earliest documented rave-style events was organized by Exodus Productions in Toronto. They held regular parties at 23 Hop, a warehouse space on Richmond Street West, starting in 1991. This venue became a central hub for the burgeoning rave scene until its closure in 1995. Notable DJs like Moby and Mark Oliver performed there.

In the mid-1990s, the rave scene in Toronto was largely underground, characterized by a strong DIY ethos and a focus on techno music. Raves were often held in unconventional spaces like warehouses and abandoned buildings. The scene attracted a diverse crowd, though the majority of attendees were Caucasian and from middle-class backgrounds.

Drug use, particularly of amphetamines like ecstasy, was prevalent in the rave scene, leading to concerns from health authorities and media attention. However, ravers often emphasized responsible drug use and harm reduction strategies. Alcohol was generally viewed as incompatible with rave culture.

By the late 1990s, the Toronto rave scene had transitioned into more mainstream venues and clubs, similar to the evolution of rave culture in Britain. This shift was accompanied by an increase in commercialization and a broader appeal.

In 2001, Calgary became the first major Canadian city to pass a bylaw specifically addressing raves. This bylaw aimed to ensure the safety of rave attendees and minimize disruption to surrounding neighborhoods. It was developed in consultation with representatives from the city, the province of Alberta, and the rave community.

Germany

Under Construction

Netherlands

See also: Gabber

In the Netherlands, gabber (or early hardcore) emerged as the first truly Dutch style of electronic music in the 1990s. It evolved from hardcore techno and became a major youth subculture in the country. The track "We Have Arrived" by Mescalinum United, produced in Frankfurt in 1990, is considered the first hardcore track. It was discovered by Brooklyn DJ Lenny Dee and released on his label, Industrial Strength Records, in 1991.

House music arrived in Amsterdam in 1988 and was championed by journalist Gert van Veen. Gabber, or "gabberhouse," developed as the hardest offshoot of house music. Illegal raves organized by Multigroove took place in Amsterdam between 1991 and 1992. Their most notable event was the Tunnel Rave, held in an abandoned cycle path. Multigroove later established a venue in a former peanut factory on Elementenstraat, which became a central location for gabber in Amsterdam.

In 1993, the police raided Warehouse Elementenstraat due to its unlicensed operation and drug-related concerns. The founders and DJs were arrested, and the venue was closed. Multigroove was later revived at the Hemkade in Zaandam.

DJ Paul Elstak, known as the "Godfather of Hardcore," began his career as a hip-hop DJ in Rotterdam in 1987. He formed the group Holy Noise with Rob Fabrie and Richard van Naamen. Their biggest hit was "James Brown is Still Alive," released in 1991. Parkzicht, a discotheque in Rotterdam, became another hub for gabber in the early 1990s. DJ Rob, a resident DJ at Parkzicht, experimented with harder techno sounds that contributed to the development of gabber. The popularity of Parkzicht grew alongside the gabber scene.

The first edition of A Nightmare in Rotterdam, organized by DJ Rob and Paul Elstak, took place at Parkzicht in 1992. Later editions were held at the Energiehal, attracting crowds of up to 15,000 people. The Energiehal served as a central location for gabber events in Rotterdam until its demolition in 1999. The last rave at the Energiehal was held on Queen's Day in 1999.

Rave The City, based in The Hague, was an early adopter of hardcore and gabber music. Their first event took place in 1991. The track "Dominator" by Human Resource, performed at the first Rave The City, became a gabber anthem. Rotterdam Records, founded by Paul Elstak in 1992, was the first Dutch hardcore and gabber label. Mokum Records, launched in 1993, released gabber music from Amsterdam.

The intercity rivalry between Amsterdam and Rotterdam, fueled by football, played a role in the gabber scene. Gabber attracted supporters from both cities. The Gabber subculture in the 1990s was characterized by a distinct uniform, including Nike Air Max BW trainers, brightly colored tracksuits, and shaved heads or undercuts. Hakken, a style of dance, evolved from the gabber scene.

ID&T, founded in 1992, became a major dance music organization in the Netherlands. They organized Thunderdome, a series of large-scale gabber events. The first Thunderdome took place in 1992 and attracted over 30,000 people. The Dreamteam, formed in 1992, was a group of gabber DJs that became Thunderdome's flagship act. The group included Dano, The Prophet, Buzz Fuzz, and Gizmo.

The Forze DJ Team, formed by Paul Elstak in 1994, was another influential gabber DJ team. Forze Records, a sub-label of Rotterdam Records, released gabber music and launched a clothing line. Thunderdome events were documented and released on DVDs and broadcast on Dutch television. The Thunderdome CD series also contributed to the genre's popularity. Dana, a female hardcore DJ, gained prominence in the gabber scene in the 1990s. She became a regular at Thunderdome events.

The Wizard, Thunderdome's iconic logo, was created by graffiti artist MODE 2. The logo became a symbol of hardcore and was even tattooed on fans. Thunderdome merchandise and CD sales played a significant role in ID&T's success. The events also fostered a dedicated collector community.

Happy hardcore, a more commercially oriented style of hardcore, emerged in the mid-1990s. Paul Elstak and Mokum Records embraced happy hardcore, which led to some alienation from the gabber community. Moreover, Gabber parodies and negative media portrayals contributed to the decline of the gabber scene in the late-1990s. The overexposure and commercialization of gabber led to its decline.

ID&T's release of "The Promo Files" by DJ Promo marked a shift towards a darker, rawer sound in hardcore. This marked the rebirth of Dutch hardcore.

United Kingdom

Under Construction

United States

Under Construction

Culture

Fashion and Aesthetics

Two Acid House ravers. Picture by Peter J. Walsh.

Rave fashion is diverse and has continuously evolved since the late 1980s, displaying a wide range of styles that vary across regions, scenes, and participants' individual choices. Early rave parties often featured costume-like attire, including protective suits, safety vests, and gas masks, often paired with cyberpunk-inspired goggles. Slogans like "Peace, Love, Unity," smiley-face T-shirts, bandanas, and bucket hats emerged with the acid house movement. Other early influences included plastic aesthetics, fetish styles, DIY elements, 1970s-inspired clothing, second-hand items, retro sportswear (such as Adidas tracksuits), revealing outfits, war-themed garments, and elements of science-fiction.

The 1990s saw the rise of tight-fitting nylon shirts, quilted vests, bell-bottoms, neoprene jackets, studded belts, platform shoes, flokati fur jackets, scarves, bags, and phat pants, frequently in bright and neon colors. Gaudy hair, dreadlocks, tattoos, and piercings also became popular. Common accessories included wristbands, collars, whistles, pacifiers, white gloves, glow sticks, feather boas, oversized sunglasses, and truck tarpaulin record bags. These trends led to the development of commercial "clubwear" in the early 1990s.

Sub-scenes within rave culture developed distinct dress codes. For example, Gabber ravers and Psytrance ravers had different styles, although some basic features remained recognizable. Gabber fashion included retro sportswear, notably Adidas tracksuits. The "New Beat" movement in Belgium, emerging in the late 1980s, featured a goth-inspired uniform in all-black, with outfits combining cycling shorts, knee-high socks, bowler hats with crosses, rosaries, and heavy, black shoes. Women wore dark eye makeup and bright red lipstick. This style was inspired by the "New Beat Fashion" collection by Idriz Jossa.

Since the 2000s, rave fashion has remained diverse. In North America, colorful clothing and accessories, particularly kandi jewelry that glows under ultraviolet light, remain prominent. Kandi, often featuring personal words or phrases, is exchanged according to the PLUR ethos. This style has sometimes been commercialized as "rave fashion" or "festival fashion," encompassing various accessories for unique looks. "Glitter Queens" often wear sexy sequin outfits, glitter makeup, and holographic boots, bikinis, and bodysuits, often with themes like mermaids, stars, aliens, and fairies.

In contrast, a strictly black style, influenced by the goth subculture, has become common in some techno scenes, such as at Berlin's Berghain club. Cybergoths blend elements of cyberpunk, goth, rivethead, and rave aesthetics, incorporating cyberlox, corsets, leg warmers, spiked or light-up gas masks, combat boots, neon colors, latex, cyberpunk designs, reflective materials, glowing optic fibers, studs, and spikes. Some rave events individually enforce minimalist dress codes, such as all-white or all-black attire.

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For more information on the fashion of individual rave scenes, see:

• Acid House: Smiley face shirts, baggy clothing, and psychedelic patterns.
• Berlin Techno Fashion: Describes the distinctive all-black style characteristic of Berlin's rave scene.
• Cybergoth: Cyberlox, corsets, gas masks, and neon colors, combining goth and cyberpunk elements.
• Gabber: Tracksuits, shaved heads, and Nike Air Max trainers, known for its hardcore style.
• Kandi Raver: Colorful beaded jewelry (kandi), and vibrant clothing.
• Makinero: Originating from the "Ruta del Bakalao" in Valencia, featuring diverse fashion including biker jackets, comfortable shoes like New Balance or Nike Air Max, and a focus on practicality for all-night dancing.
• New Beat: All-black, gothic-inspired uniforms with elements like cycling shorts and heavy boots.
• Rivethead: Industrial-inspired fashion, including combat boots, black clothing, and metal accents.

Drug Use

Drug use has been associated with rave culture since its early days, with some attendees using substances to enhance their experience. While not all ravers use drugs, certain substances, particularly MDMA (often called ecstasy or molly), have become closely linked to the scene.

Commonly used drugs at raves include:

• MDMA (ecstasy): Known for its empathogenic effects, increasing feelings of love and connection.
• 2C-B: A psychedelic with stimulant properties, producing visual and auditory distortions.
• Amphetamines: Stimulants that increase energy and alertness, allowing for prolonged dancing.
• GHB: A central nervous system depressant, sometimes used to enhance euphoria or for its sedative effects.
• Ketamine: A dissociative anesthetic with hallucinogenic properties, producing a sense of detachment and altered perception.
• LSD: A potent hallucinogen, causing profound changes in perception and consciousness.
• Cannabis: Used for its psychoactive and relaxing effects.

The prevalence of drugs varies across different rave scenes and regions. While some law enforcement agencies have labeled rave culture as "drug-centric," this is a generalization that doesn't necessarily represent the experiences within the scene. In one study, 91% of dance club members aged 16-29 reported using ecstasy, highlighting the prevalence of drug use in specific rave subcultures. Drug use at raves carries risks, including overdose, adverse health effects, and addiction. As one study found, teenagers are more likely than adults to be on multiple drugs at once while participating in a rave. Some organizations and events promote harm reduction strategies, such as providing drug information and testing services, to minimize these risks.

Kandi and PLUR

Main article: Kandi Raver

A raver wearing kandi bracelets. Photo credit: @sunflowerraver.

Kandi, typically brightly colored bracelets made from pony beads, are an important part of rave culture, especially in the United States. They are often exchanged as a symbol of friendship and connection, embodying the PLUR ethos: Peace, Love, Unity, and Respect. The origins of PLUR can be traced back to a 1993 rave in the Bronx where DJ Frankie Bones, in an attempt to de-escalate a fight, urged the crowd to show "peace, love, and unity." This message evolved into the acronym PLUR, with "Respect" added later. The term "Kandi Kid" or "Kandi Raver" refers to people who participate in kandi culture.

The tradition of kandi likely evolved from friendship bracelets, similarly made and exchanged to commemorate bonds. Kandi-making is often seen as a personal and creative process, with store-bought kandi sometimes viewed less favorably. Kandi has also evolved beyond simple bracelets to encompass a wide range of creative expressions. Ravers now craft cuffs, necklaces, masks, and even clothing adorned with beads. Some kandi enthusiasts create elaborate three-dimensional structures and incorporate materials like perler beads to form pixelated designs.

The PLUR handshake, a ritualized exchange of kandi, reinforces the values it represents. Each element of PLUR is represented by a gesture:

• Peace: A peace sign is made with fingers touching.
• Love: Both parties form half a heart with their hands, joining them to make a whole.
• Unity: Hands are clasped together.
• Respect: Kandi bracelets are passed from one person to the other through their clasped hands.

This exchange is often followed by a hug, reinforcing the connection. Kandi worn on the right arm is typically available for trade, while kandi on the left arm is not. While kandi and PLUR are most prominent in the US rave scene, their underlying values of community and connection are also seen in rave culture globally.

Flyers

Hedonism 1, February 1988 at Alperton Lane in Wembley, London.

Shoom, January 1988 at Fitness Centre in Southwark, London.

Flyers have been essential to rave culture, functioning as both invitations and visual expressions of the rave experience itself. These flyers often display unique graphic design, reflecting the creativity and DIY ethos of the scene. Early rave flyers in the late-1980s and early-1990s, like those for the first Hedonism event in 1988, were often simple and hand-drawn, indicative of the underground nature of the events. As rave culture evolved, flyers became more elaborate, incorporating bold typography, vibrant colors, and psychedelic imagery. Cryptic messages and symbols were common, adding to the mystique and exclusivity of events like those at the Haçienda.

In the pre-internet era, flyers were a communication tool, providing essential information about the location, date, and lineup for raves. Distributed in record stores, clothing shops, and at prior raves, they built anticipation and excitement. For some, like those who got into raving young, flyers were a "way into this underground culture."

Flyer design often mirrored the music and atmosphere of the events. Acid house flyers might feature smiley faces and psychedelic patterns, while hardcore flyers might use darker imagery and aggressive typography. Flyers also became collectibles, tangible pieces of rave history. Some notable examples include the die-cut heart design for Shoom in 1988 and the "Aciiiiid House Party" flyer from October 1988, with its simple green and black design and trippy pop art.

The rise of the internet brought digital flyers and social media promotion. However, physical flyers remain significant in rave culture, representing the tangible and communal aspects of the scene. They are historical artifacts, documenting key moments in dance music and the history of youth culture, and are used by researchers and those reminiscing about the past. Even today, archivists like Rob Ford and organizations like the Museum of Youth Culture recognize the importance of preserving these flyers. Ford's book, Members Only, showcases membership cards and passes from iconic clubs and events, showcasing the design and cultural significance of these items.

In recent years, the style of 80s rave flyers has influenced modern graphic design trends such as Acid Design.

Spaces and Venues

An example of a warehouse rave in France, 2001, picture by Vinca Petersen.

Raves have historically taken place in a variety of venues, often originating as grassroots, anti-establishment, and unlicensed all-night dance parties. Before the commercialization of the rave scene, when large legal venues became common, the location of a rave was often kept secret until the night of the event. This secrecy, communicated through answering machine messages, mobile messaging, secret flyers, and websites, was essential to avoid police interference, particularly due to the presence of illicit drug use. This practice allowed ravers to occupy locations for extended periods, sometimes up to ten hours, fostering a sense of deviation from typical social controls. This element of secrecy continues in the underground rave scene.

A large-scale commercial rave venue, typical of events like Electric Daisy Carnival.

In the 2000s and beyond, while some underground raves maintain this secrecy, "after-hours" clubs and large outdoor events have also become common. These venues create an immersive, alternate atmosphere, often emphasizing vibrant visual effects through props and decor. More recently, large commercial events, such as Electric Daisy Carnival and Tomorrowland, are held annually at the same venues, which accommodate large crowds and often feature recurring themes.

Some raves incorporate Pagan symbolism and aim to immerse attendees in a fantastical world. Indigenous imagery and spirituality can be characteristic of the rave ethos. For example, in some collectives, pagan altars are set up, sacred images from primitive cultures decorate walls, and cleansing rituals are performed over turntables and dance floors. This spatial strategy is a key part of the raving experience, as it establishes the initial "vibe," a concept in the raver ethos that represents the allure and receptiveness of an environment's energy. The landscape is also integral to the composition of a rave, similar to its role in pagan rituals. For instance, the Numic Ghost Dancers held rituals at specific geographical sites believed to possess powerful natural energy flows, which were later represented in rhythmic dances to enhance connectivity. A notable example of a unique venue is the Falls festival in Byron Bay, which features a hidden rave party behind a washing machine in a laundromat.

An immersive light show at a rave event.

Light shows are a significant component of the rave experience. Attendees may engage in light-oriented dances such as glowsticking, glowstringing, gloving, and other light shows. Gloving, in particular, has evolved significantly beyond rave culture. Other forms of light display include LED lights, flashlights, and blinking strobe lights. LEDs come in various colors with different settings. Gloving, which involves using fingertip LED lights to create patterns with hand movements, became increasingly popular in the early 2010s at raves in America. Glovers use their fingers and hands to move with the music's beat, utilizing color and speed settings on their lights to create fascinating shows for spectators. This can influence audience reactions during songs or throughout a concert. The culture of gloving has expanded to include participants of all ages. Traditional rave lights have also advanced, with newer, brighter, and more sophisticated versions offering numerous colors and modes, including solid, ribbon, strobe, and hyper flash.

A raver performing gloving, a light-oriented dance.

Glow poi, which are poi containing a light source such as UV-sensitive materials, LED lights, or chemical glow sticks, can be spun in the dark for dramatic effect. Glowstringing, involving glowsticks swung from shoelaces, is popular at festivals and raves. While poi focuses on manipulating the head of the poi (the end opposite the hand), glowstringing emphasizes manipulation of the cord itself.

Laser lighting displays or laser light shows involve projecting laser beams to entertain an audience, often set to music or accompanying musical performances. The coherent nature of laser light allows for narrow beams that can be optically scanned to draw patterns or images on surfaces like walls, ceilings, or theatrical smoke and fog without refocusing. This focused beam is highly visible and is frequently used as an effect. Beams are sometimes reflected off mirrors to create laser sculptures.

A dynamic laser light display at a rave.

Holographic displays are a type of 3D display that use light diffraction to show a three-dimensional image without requiring viewers to wear special glasses or external equipment, and they do not cause vergence-accommodation conflict. Some commercially advertised 3D displays are called holographic but are actually multiscopic.

Gloving performances are termed light shows and have gained popularity at raves in America. Elements of hip-hop dances, such as liquiding, finger tutting, and popping, have influenced gloving, and many of these dance concepts and techniques are applicable. Before LED lights were incorporated, glovers used plain white Mickey Mouse gloves that reflected black light, which was common at shows. Gloving can be physically demanding.

In 2010, Insomniac Events, an electronic dance music promotions company, banned gloving from all its events, citing drug connotations and safety concerns. The CEO, Pasquale Rotella, stated that gloving was jeopardizing events and harming the culture, citing fire marshals' concerns and media perception.

Technology and Media

The development of rave culture was intrinsically linked to advancements in electronic music technology, which has roots all the way back to post-war Germany and France, particularly through musique concrète. Synthesizers and drum machines, such as the Roland TB-303, TR-808, and TR-909, were foundational in shaping the sound of early house, techno, and acid house. These instruments allowed for the creation of new sonic textures, repetitive rhythms, and basslines that defined genres central to rave culture. The innovative use of samplers and sequencers also enabled producers to layer sounds and craft intricate arrangements, expanding the possibilities of electronic music.

The physical experience of a rave was heavily dependent on sophisticated sound and lighting systems. Powerful sound systems, often pushing the limits of available technology, delivered the music with high fidelity and impact. Immersive lighting setups, incorporating lasers, strobe lights, fog machines, and projected visuals, transformed venues into sensory environments designed to enhance the music and create a hypnotic atmosphere.

Communication technologies also played an important role in the organization and dissemination of rave events, especially during their underground phases. In the pre-internet era, information about secret rave locations was often communicated through word-of-mouth, coded answering machine messages, pagers, and anonymously distributed flyers. These methods maintained the clandestine nature of events, crucial for avoiding police interference. With the rise of the internet, websites, early online forums, and later social media platforms became instrumental in sharing event details and distributing music. Mobile phones further streamlined communication, allowing for last-minute location changes and real-time coordination among attendees.

Mainstream media also influenced the public perception of rave culture. Initial coverage was curious or even positive, but it often shifted to focus heavily on the association between raves and illicit drug use, particularly MDMA. This negative portrayal contributed to widespread moral panics, depicting rave culture as a dangerous social phenomenon and often leading to increased police scrutiny and the implementation of anti-rave legislation in various countries. In contrast, pirate radio stations and underground fanzines served as alternative media channels within the rave community. These platforms provided accurate event information, promoted emerging artists and genres, and offered perspectives that countered the often sensationalized narratives of the mainstream press.

The legacy of rave culture has been preserved and shared through various forms of media documentation, including websites such as Rave Archive. Music recordings, including vinyl, cassettes, and later CDs and digital files, have been used to document the rave scene's history.

Legality and Policing

Rave culture has frequently encountered challenges from law enforcement and legislative bodies due to its association with illicit drug use. This has resulted in police raids and the implementation of anti-rave laws in numerous countries. These legal actions are often linked to a moral panic surrounding rave culture, which has been depicted as a threat to public order and health. Raves frequently utilize non-authorized venues, such as squat parties, unused warehouses, and aircraft hangars, contributing to their legal problems.

In the United Kingdom, politicians reacted negatively to the growing rave scene of the early 1990s, imposing fines on promoters of unauthorized events. Increased police enforcement drove the rave scene away from urban centers and into more rural areas.

In Canada, specifically Calgary, a bylaw addressing raves was passed in 2001. This made Calgary the first major Canadian city to implement such legislation. The bylaw aimed to ensure the safety of rave attendees and minimize disruption to surrounding neighborhoods. Its development involved consultation with representatives from the city, the province of Alberta, and the rave community itself.

In the Netherlands, the police raided Warehouse Elementenstraat in 1993. This venue, a central location for the gabber scene in Amsterdam, was targeted due to its unlicensed operation and concerns related to drug use. The founders and DJs were arrested, and the venue was subsequently closed.

In Australia, a decline in rave attendance in the mid-to-late 1990s was partly attributed to the death of Anna Wood at a Sydney rave. This incident led to increased media attention on the connection between drug culture and the rave scene, further prompting scrutiny from authorities.

Music

Key Genres

Rave music encompasses a diverse range of electronic genres, including:

• Breakbeat: This genre is characterized by the use of breakbeats, and includes styles like breakbeat hardcore, nu skool breaks, drum and bass, and breakcore. Drum and bass is a popular choice at rave events, characterized by fast tempos (typically 170-176 BPM) and heavy basslines. Popular subgenres within drum and bass include liquid, dancefloor, jump-up, and neurofunk.
  • Key artists: Goldie, Roni Size, Andy C, Pendulum, Netsky
• Electro: One of the earliest forms of EDM associated with rave, electro often features psychedelic sounds and repetitive rhythms. It has influenced various other rave genres, including techno, house, Miami bass, and crunk.
  • Key artists: Kraftwerk, Afrika Bambaataa, Egyptian Lover, Anthony Rother, Drexciya, Dopplereffekt
• Hardcore Techno: This high-energy genre developed in the Netherlands in the early 1990s, heavily influenced by Rotterdam's Gabber movement. It is known for its fast tempos, distorted kick drums, and intense atmosphere. It often features tempos of 160 to 200 BPM or more. Subgenres like happy hardcore (which blends hardcore with Eurodance and a more pop-oriented sound), trancecore, and hardstyle have also gained popularity in the rave scene. Hardstyle is characterized by its fast tempo (typically around 150 BPM), heavy kick drums, and use of reverse bass.
  • Key artists: Angerfist, Neophyte, Tha Playah, Paul Elstak, Headhunterz
• House: House music, one of the foundational genres of rave culture, originated in the 1980s and is characterized by its 4/4 beat, repetitive rhythms, and use of synthesizers and drum machines. Acid House, a subgenre with squelchy synth sounds created using the Roland TB-303 synthesizer, heavily influenced the early rave scene. Other subgenres of house popular at raves include UK funky, speed garage, dubstep, and rave house (a loose term encompassing styles like progressive house, hard house, and trance house).
  • Key artists: Frankie Knuckles, Larry Levan, Daft Punk, Armand Van Helden, Kerri Chandler
• Trance: Evolving from the acid house movement, trance music is known for its euphoric melodies, atmospheric sound, and building energy. It often features fast tempos (130-160 BPM) and hypnotic rhythms. Popular subgenres within trance include progressive trance, hard trance, uplifting trance, tech trance, and psytrance (which developed from Goa trance).
  • Key artists: Armin van Buuren, Tiësto, Paul van Dyk, Above & Beyond, Infected Mushroom

Other Genres

These are other genres and subgenres popular within rave culture in alphabetical order:

• Acid House: This subgenre of house music that emerged in Chicago during the mid-1980s, characterized by its squelchy and hypnotic sound, often created using the Roland TB-303 synthesizer. It played a crucial role in the early rave scene and the Second Summer of Love, becoming synonymous with the underground warehouse parties and illegal raves that defined the era.
  • Key artists: Phuture, 808 State, The KLF, S'Express, A Guy Called Gerald
• Aggrotech: This aggressive and dark genre of electronic music emerged in the mid-1990s, blending elements of industrial music, techno, and EBM. It's characterized by distorted synths, heavy beats, and often harsh or aggressive vocals, sometimes incorporating themes of violence, sexuality, and social commentary. It is popular within the Cybergoth subculture.
  • Key artists: Hocico, Aesthetic Perfection, Suicide Commando, Agonoize, Combichrist, Wumpscut, FGFC820, Bruderschaft
• Ambient and Chill-Out Music: Provides a more relaxed atmosphere in designated chill-out rooms or at events focused on slower tempos. Popular subgenres include ambient, dubstep, breakstep, electro, glitch, and Intelligent Dance Music (IDM).
  • Key artists: Aphex Twin, Boards of Canada, Brian Eno, The Orb, Biosphere
• Balearic Beat: This eclectic genre emerged in the mid-1980s on the Spanish island of Ibiza. It's characterized by its laid-back tempo (typically 110-125 BPM), diverse influences (ranging from disco and house to rock and pop), and focus on creating a blissed-out and euphoric atmosphere. DJs like Alfredo Fiorito and José Padilla pioneered the sound at clubs like Amnesia and Café del Mar, playing a mix of genres and tempos that suited the island's relaxed vibe and attracted a diverse crowd.
  • Key artists: Alfredo, José Padilla, Paul Oakenfold, Danny Rampling, DJ Harvey
• Breakcore: Known for its chaotic and experimental sound, breakcore utilizes complex, chopped breakbeats and often incorporates samples from various media.
  • Key artists: Venetian Snares, Alec Empire, Goreshit, Atari Teenage Riot
• Detroit Techno: This influential genre emerged in Detroit, Michigan in the mid-1980s, pioneered by artists like Juan Atkins, Kevin Saunderson, and Derrick May (often referred to as the "Belleville Three"). It's characterized by its futuristic and industrial sound, often featuring repetitive rhythms, deep basslines, and atmospheric textures. Detroit techno was heavily influenced by European electronic music, particularly synth-pop and EBM, as well as the city's post-industrial landscape and Afrofuturist themes.
  • Key artists: Juan Atkins, Kevin Saunderson, Derrick May, Jeff Mills, Carl Craig, Dopplereffekt
• Dubstep: This genre emerged in South London in the early 2000s, characterized by its half-time rhythms, heavy sub-bass, and dark, spacious atmosphere.
  • Key artists: Skream, Benga, Burial, Kode9, Mala
• Electronic Body Music (EBM): Emerging in Belgium and Germany in the early 1980s, EBM combines elements of industrial, synth-pop, and post-punk, characterized by its heavy electronic beats, repetitive sequences, and often dark or aggressive vocals.
  • Key artists: Front 242, Nitzer Ebb, DAF, A Split-Second
• Electroclash: This genre blends elements of electro, new wave, and punk, often featuring distorted synths, catchy vocals, and a retro-futuristic aesthetic. It gained popularity in the late 1990s and early 2000s.
  • Key artists: Fischerspooner, Miss Kittin, The Hacker, Peaches, Tiga, ADULT.
• Free Tekno: A high-energy, underground style with fast tempos (170-200 BPM) and distorted sounds, often played at illegal raves and teknivals.
  • Key artists: Spiral Tribe, Desert Storm, Hekate, Heretik, Crystal Distortion
• Frenchcore: This hardcore genre originated in France in the late-1990s, characterized by its distorted kick drums, bouncy basslines, and fast tempos (typically around 200 BPM).
  • Key artists: Dr. Peacock, Radium, Micropoint, The Speed Freak, Billx
• Future Bass: This genre emphasizes modulated synthesizer bass sounds, often creating a "wobbly" effect. It frequently incorporates melodic elements, vocal chops, and atmospheric textures.
  • Key artists: Flume, Porter Robinson, RL Grime, San Holo, Illenium
• Gabber: A subgenre of hardcore techno that originated in the Netherlands, known for its extremely fast tempos (often exceeding 200 BPM), distorted kicks, and aggressive sound. However, "Gabber" is not considered a music genre but a subculture, with the genre simply being called "hardcore" in its home country.
  • Key artists: Neophyte, The Prophet, Angerfist
• Gqom: A South African genre with hypnotic rhythms and drone sounds, influenced by techno and broken beat.
  • Key artists: DJ Lag, Rudeboyz, Babes Wodumo, Distruction Boyz, Naked Boys
• Hands Up: also known as Dancecore in Eastern Europe, it is an electronic music genre that originated in Germany in the late 1990s and gained popularity in the 2000s. It is characterized by its fast tempo (typically 140 to 160 BPM), euphoric melodies, and frequent use of vocals.
  • Key artists: Cascada, Basshunter, Clubraiders, Basslovers United, Manian, ItaloBrothers, DJ Gollum
• Happy Hardcore: This high-energy genre features fast tempos (typically 160-180 BPM), upbeat melodies, and often includes cheerful vocals and piano riffs.
  • Key artists: S3RL, DJ Hixxy, Darren Styles, Gammer, Hylen
• Hard Dance: This is a broad category encompassing various high-energy genres with fast tempos and heavy beats, often featuring influences from hardcore, hardstyle, and trance. Subgenres include:
  • Hard NRG: A UK-based genre combining elements of hard house and trance, popular in the late 1990s and early 2000s.
    • Key artists: Sharkey, BK, Klubbheads, Darren Styles
  • Scouse House: A fast and bouncy style of house music originating in Liverpool, UK, known for its pop-oriented sound and often humorous lyrics.
    • Key artists: Ultrabeat, DJ Sammy, Cascada, Sash!
  • UK Hardcore: This genre emerged in the early 1990s, characterized by its fast tempos (170-200 BPM), breakbeats, and often distorted or pitched-up vocals.
    • Key artists: DJ Hixxy, Scott Brown, Dougal, Gammer, Brisk & Ham
• Hardbass: Originating in St. Petersburg in the early 2000s, hardbass is characterized by its bouncy basslines, fast tempos (150-175 BPM), and occasional use of rapping or vocals. It often parodies the Gopnik subculture.
  • Key artists: DJ Snat, Sonic Mine, XS Project, Hard Bass School, Gopnik McBlyat
• Industrial Dance: Blends elements of industrial music with rave genres, often featuring heavy beats and distorted sounds. Industrial music itself is often considered a precursor to many of the sounds found in rave music.
  • Key artists: KMFDM, Ministry, Nine Inch Nails, Skinny Puppy, Front Line Assembly
• J-Core: This Japanese hardcore style is known for its fast tempos (often exceeding 200 BPM), high-pitched sounds, and frequent use of anime and video game samples. It evolved from Nerdcore Techno, a genre pioneered by DJ Sharpnel.
  • Key artists: DJ Sharpnel, REDALiCE, t+pazolite, Kobaryo, Laur
• Jungle: A precursor to drum and bass, jungle emerged in the early 1990s, featuring fast breakbeats (160 BPM and up), heavy basslines, and atmospheric textures.
  • Key artists: Rufige Kru, 4hero, Goldie, LTJ Bukem, Shy FX
• Jumpstyle: This energetic dance music genre originated in Belgium in the late 1990s, characterized by fast tempos (typically 140-160 BPM), heavy kicks, and a distinctive "jump" rhythm.
  • Key artists: Da Boy Tommy, DJ Coone, Scooter
• Mákina: Also known as Bakalao, this electronic music genre emerged in Valencia the early 1990s, characterized by its fast tempos (150-180 BPM), bouncy rhythms, and energetic melodies. It often features influences from hardcore techno, acid house, and Mediterranean folk music. In Spain, this genre was particularly significant during the rúta destroy scene.
  • Key artists: Chimo Bayo, Pastis & Buenri, Julio Posadas, DJ Skudero, Pont Aeri, Paco Pil
• New Beat: This Belgian electronic music genre emerged in the late 1980s, characterized by its slow tempos (typically 110-120 BPM), heavy basslines, and atmospheric sound.
  • Key artists: The Confetti's, Lords of Acid, Praga Khan, T99
• Speedcore: This extreme genre pushes the boundaries of tempo, often exceeding 300 BPM. It features aggressive percussion, distorted sounds, and a chaotic atmosphere.
  • Key artists: m1dy, Gabber Piet, Noisekick, Sorcerer, Loffciamcore
• UK Garage: Emerging in the early 1990s, UK Garage is a genre of electronic music that draws influences from house music, particularly 4x4 genres with a prominent bass drum on every beat, jungle, and R&B. It is characterized by its use of shuffled and syncopated 4/4 beats, syncopated basslines, and often pitched-up or time-stretched vocal samples.
  • Key artists: MJ Cole, Todd Edwards, Grant Nelson, Artful Dodger, So Solid Crew

Songs

• "10% Dis" by MC Lyte (Massive Attack Remix)
• "A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain That Rules from the Centre of the Ultraworld" by The Orb
• "Acid Eiffel" by Laurent Garnier
• "Acid Tracks" by Phuture
• "Adagio for Strings" (Ferry Corsten Remix) by Samuel Barber
• "Alles Naar De Klote" by Rotterdam Terror Corps
• "Amsterdam Hardcore" by Euromasters
• "Anasthasia" by T99
• "Around the World" by Daft Punk
• "Así Me Gusta A Mí (X-Ta Sí, X-Ta No)" by Chimo Bayo
• "As the Rush Comes" by Motorcycle
• "Barefoot In The Head" by A Man Called Adam
• "Belfast" by Orbital
• "Better Off Alone" by Alice Deejay
• "Big Fun" by Inner City
• "Blue Lines" by Massive Attack
• "Born Slippy .NUXX" by Underworld
• "Brain Is the Weapon" by 3 Steps Ahead
• "Cafe Del Mar" by Energy 52
• "Can You Feel It" by Larry Heard
• "Carte Blanche" by Veracocha
• "Charly" by The Prodigy
• "Chime" by Orbital
• "Children" by Robert Miles
• "Come to Daddy" by Aphex Twin
• "Communication" by Armin van Buuren
• "Da Funk" by Daft Punk
• "Das Boot" by U96
• "Destroy Your Face" by Heretik
• "Dominator" by Human Resource
• "D-Day" by Desert Storm
• "Dreamer" by Livin' Joy
• "Ebeneezer Goode" by The Shamen
• "Egypt, Egypt" by Egyptian Lover
• "Electra" by Jibaro
• "Energy" by System F
• "Energy Flash" by Joey Beltram
• "Everytime We Touch" by Cascada
• "Extasis" by DJ Skudero
• "Flying Free" by Pont Aeri
• "For An Angel" by Paul van Dyk
• "Forward the Revolution" by Spiral Tribe
• "Gabber Piet" by Hakkuhbar
• "God Is a DJ" by Faithless
• "Good Life" by Inner City
• "Gypsy Woman (She's Homeless)" by Crystal Waters
• "Halcyon On and On" by Orbital
• "Hardcore Feelings" by Prophet
• "Headhunter" by Front 242
• "Hey Boy Hey Girl" by The Chemical Brothers
• "Higher State of Consciousness" by Josh Wink
• "I Sit on Acid" by Lords of Acid
• "I Wanna Be a Hippy" by Technohead
• "I'm Gonna Get You" by Bizarre Inc
• "Injected with a Poison" by Praga Khan
• "In My Soul" by Grant Nelson
• "In Yer Face" by 808 State
• "Insomnia" by Faithless
• "Jack Your Body" by Steve "Silk" Hurley
• "Join In The Chant" by Nitzer Ebb
• "Kernkraft 400" by Zombie Nation
• "Kickin' Hard" by Klubbheads
• "King of My Castle" by Wamdue Project
• "La Linea De La Vida" by xQue
• "LFO" by LFO
• "Little Fluffy Clouds" by The Orb
• "Loops of Fury" by The Chemical Brothers
• "Luv U More" by Paul Elstak
• "Luvstruck" by Southside Spinners
• "Man with the Red Face" by Laurent Garnier
• "Man with the Red Face" by Mark Broom
• "Missing" by Everything but the Girl (Todd Terry Remix)
• "Motherfucker" by Party Animals
• "Move Your Body" by Marshall Jefferson
• "Needin' U" by David Morales presents The Face
• "No New Style" by Neophyte
• "No UFOs" by Juan Atkins
• "No Way Back" by Adonis
• "On" by Aphex Twin
• "On a Ragga Tip" by SL2
• "One More Time" by Daft Punk
• "Operation Blade (Bass in the Place...)" by Public Domain
• "Out of Space" by The Prodigy
• "Out of the Blue" by System F
• "Pacific State" by 808 State
• "Paco Pil" by Viva la fiesta
• "Papua New Guinea" by The Future Sound of London
• "Planet Rock" by Afrika Bambaataa & The Soulsonic Force
• "Plastic Dreams" by Jaydee
• "Praga Khan" by Injected with a Poison
• "Pump Up the Volume" by M|A|R|R|S
• "Push the Feeling On (MK Dub Revisited Edit)" by Nightcrawlers
• "Rainbow in the Sky" by Paul Estak
• "Raise Your Fist" by Angerfist
• "Ravers in the UK" by Manian
• "Rez" by Underworld
• "Rhythm Is a Dancer" by Snap!
• "Rich In Paradise" by FPI Project
• "Ride on Time" by Black Box
• "Roygbiv" by Boards of Canada
• "Salva Mea" by Faithless
• "Sandstorm" by Darude
• "Setting Sun" by The Chemical Brothers
• "Seven Days and One Week" by BBE
• "Shivers" by Armin van Buuren
• "Show Me Love" by Robin S
• "Silence" (Tiësto's In Search of Sunrise Remix) by Delerium featuring Sarah McLachlan
• "Slam" by Pendulum
• "Spastik" by Plastikman
• "Spiritual High (State of Independence) Part II" by Moodswings
• "Stars" by Flamman & Abraxas
• "Starlight" by The Space Brothers
• "Strings of Life" by Derrick May
• "Sun & Moon" by Above & Beyond
• "Sweet Harmony" by Liquid
• "Sweetness" by Lamb
• "Techno Syndrome (Mortal Kombat)" by The Immortals
• "The Bells" by Jeff Mills
• "The Only Way Is Up" by Yazz
• "The Sound of C." by Confetti's
• "The Theme" by Jurgen Vries
• "Theme from S'Express" by S'Express
• "Trip II the Moon (The Sequel)" by Dune
• "Turn Up the Bass" by Tyree
• "U96" by Das Boot
• "Underworld" by Born Slippy .NUXX
• "Underworld" by Rez
• "Unfinished Symphony" by Massive Attack
• "Vapourspace" by Plastikman
• "Veracocha" by Carte Blanche
• "Viva la Fiesta" by Paco Pil
• "Vogue" by Madonna (Shep Pettibone Remixes)
• "Voodoo People" by The Prodigy
• "Voodoo Ray" by A Guy Called Gerald
• "Walking The Line" by Tha Playah
• "Waterfalls" by TLC (Hysteric Ego Remix)
• "Wavejumper" by Drexciya
• "What Time Is Love?" by The KLF
• "Where Love Lives" by Alison Limerick
• "Why Why Why" by The Woodentops
• "Wonderful Days" by Charly Lownoise & Mental Theo
• "Windowlicker" by Aphex Twin
• "You Don't Know Me" by Armand Van Helden
• "Your Love" by Frankie Knuckles
• "Zombie Nation" by Kernkraft 400

Resources

• Rave Archive
• Rave Zines (Internet Archive)
• Ishkur's Guide to Electronic Music
• RYM Ultimate Box Set > "Rave Anthems"
• RYM Ultimate Box Set > "Rave Music"
• RYM Box Hardcore Blog
• Electronic Beats
• Resident Advisor
• Discogs
• Mixmag
• DJ Mag

Gallery

Kandi is a significant part of the American rave scene.

Gabber ravers.

An example of Italian Gabber fashion.

Gabber ravers.

All-black fashion is associated with the Berlin rave scene.

Acid House ravers

A outfit from Idriz Jossa's "New Beat Fashion" collection, characteristic of Belgium's New Beat movement.

Flyer for Shoom, January 1988 at Fitness Centre in Southwark, London.