Cultural Appropriation

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Appropriation-culturelle-lallab — Illustration depicting the phrase "Culture Not Costume," emphasizing the distinction between respectful cultural appreciation and harmful appropriation.

Cultural appropriation refers to the adoption of elements from a minority culture by members of a dominant culture in a way that is perceived as inappropriate or unacknowledged. It often involves the exploitation of a culture's religious and cultural traditions, customs, dance, fashion, symbols, language, history, and music. This can be especially controversial when a dominant culture borrows from minority cultures, as it can lead to the loss or distortion of cultural elements when removed from their original context. Critics argue that such displays are disrespectful and can even be considered desecration, reducing elements with deep meaning to mere "exotic" fashion or toys. Kjerstin Johnson highlights that the imitator, who doesn't experience the oppression faced by the original culture, gets to "play" that culture temporarily without facing the daily discrimination. Greg Tate adds that this appropriation and "fetishizing" of cultures alienates the very people whose culture is being appropriated.

For example, Madonna's use of voguing, a dance developed in the gay drag-ball subculture, in her "Vogue" music video is an example of cultural appropriation.^[1] While she included drag performers, she profited significantly from the dance in a way that its creators did not. Similarly, the use of Native American mascots in sports often relies on racial caricature and perpetuates false stereotypes, representing what non-indigenous people assume indigenous cultures to be, rather than reflecting actual indigenous cultures. The wearing of Native American warbonnets at music festivals by non-indigenous attendees is another instance of cultural appropriation, as it separates the headdress from its original cultural meaning and the earned honor it represents within Plains Indian communities. Finally, the wearing of dreadlocks by non-Black people, while Black people face discrimination for the same hairstyle, exemplifies how appropriation can occur without consequences for the dominant group while the minority group faces backlash.

However, the concept of cultural appropriation is not without criticism and debate. It is often misunderstood or misapplied, and some argue that simply trying food from a different culture or learning about it cannot be considered appropriation, leading to the emergence of the term "cultural appreciation." Others claim that the act, as usually defined, doesn't constitute meaningful social harm or that the term itself lacks conceptual coherence. It is also suggested that the term can limit intellectual freedom and artistic self-expression, reinforce group divisions, and promote enmity rather than liberation. Anthropologist Jason Jackson distinguishes cultural appropriation from other forms of cultural exchange like acculturation, assimilation, or diffusion.

Defining Cultural Appropriation[]

Core Concepts and Characteristics[]

Cultural appropriation involves the adoption or use of elements of a minority culture by members of a dominant culture. A key characteristic is the presence of a power imbalance, where the dominant culture benefits from the appropriation, often while the originating culture experiences harm or misrepresentation. This power dynamic distinguishes cultural appropriation from simple cultural exchange or borrowing. The appropriated elements can range from tangible items like clothing or hairstyles to intangible aspects such as music, language, religious practices, or traditional knowledge. A central issue is the removal of these elements from their original cultural context, often leading to a distortion or trivialization of their meaning. This can be particularly damaging when the element holds sacred or spiritual significance within the originating culture. Cultural appropriation often involves a lack of acknowledgment or respect for the source culture, further compounding the harm. It can also contribute to the perpetuation of stereotypes and reinforce existing inequalities. While cultural exchange can be mutually beneficial, cultural appropriation typically involves a one-sided taking, where the dominant culture profits or gains social capital from the appropriated element, while the minority culture may not receive credit or compensation, and may even face negative consequences for engaging in the same cultural practice.

Distinguishing Appropriation from Appreciation[]

Distinguishing cultural appropriation from cultural appreciation hinges on factors like power dynamics, respect, and context. Appreciation involves a genuine interest in learning about and understanding another culture, often with acknowledgment of its origins and meaning. It typically involves reciprocal exchange and mutual benefit. Appropriation, conversely, often involves taking elements from a minority culture without understanding or respecting their original context, and often for the benefit of the dominant culture. Appreciation seeks to participate in a culture respectfully, while appropriation often extracts elements for personal gain or aesthetic purposes, disregarding the cultural significance and potentially causing harm.

Cultural exchange, a broader term, encompasses various interactions between cultures. This can include the sharing of food, music, language, or ideas. Cultural exchange can be mutually beneficial, promoting understanding and connection between different groups. However, it can also become problematic if it reinforces existing power imbalances or leads to the exploitation of one culture by another.

Cultural assimilation is a distinct process where members of a minority culture adopt the customs and values of the dominant culture, often involuntarily. This can involve abandoning their own cultural practices and language. For instance, the historical suppression of the Welsh language in the United Kingdom, where children were punished for speaking Welsh in schools, is an example of forced linguistic assimilation. Similarly, the "Anglicization" policies in the United States aimed to assimilate Native American tribes, often through forced relocation and the suppression of indigenous languages and traditions. While assimilation involves cultural change, it differs from appropriation in that it typically involves pressure from the dominant culture and the loss of the minority culture's own identity, rather than the dominant culture taking elements from the minority culture. It's important to note that cultural assimilation isn't limited to people of color. For instance, the historical assimilation of European immigrant groups in the United States, such as Italians or Poles, also demonstrates this process, where they were often pressured to abandon their native languages and customs in favor of American norms.

Diffusion refers to the spread of cultural traits from one culture to another. This can happen through trade, migration, or communication. Diffusion is a neutral term describing the movement of cultural elements, but it does not inherently address the ethical considerations of appropriation. A cultural element can diffuse widely, but its adoption by a dominant culture in a disrespectful or exploitative way would still constitute appropriation. Acculturation, similar to assimilation, involves the exchange of cultural features when groups come into continuous contact. However, acculturation does not necessarily involve one group abandoning their cultural identity. It can involve a reciprocal exchange of features. Unlike appropriation, acculturation is a two-way street where both groups are influenced.

Historical Context and Evolution of the Term[]

The concept of cultural appropriation, while debated in its application, has roots in discussions of colonialism and power dynamics. The Oxford English Dictionary's earliest citation of the phrase is in a 1945 essay by Arthur E. Christy discussing Orientalism. However, the term gained wider usage in the 1980s within post-colonial critiques of Western expansionism. Earlier related concepts, such as "cultural colonialism," were explored by Kenneth Coutts-Smith in 1976.

A key element in defining cultural appropriation is the power dynamic between the cultures involved. Many argue that appropriation becomes wrongful when a dominant culture takes elements from a minority or subordinated culture, especially when there's a history of ethnic or racial conflict. Linda Martín Alcoff notes that this often occurs when cultural outsiders use an oppressed culture's symbols or practices, like music, dance, or dress, in a trivializing way for fashion rather than respecting their original meaning. The issues of colonialism, context, and the distinction between appropriation and mutual exchange are central to this analysis. Mutual exchange is seen as occurring on an "even playing field," whereas appropriation involves taking elements of an oppressed culture out of context by those who have historically oppressed them and lack the understanding to use these elements respectfully. For example, the Russian Cossacks' adoption of the chokha and other cultural traits from indigenous Caucasian peoples exemplifies this dynamic.

George Lipsitz introduced the term "strategic anti-essentialism," referring to the use of a cultural form outside one's own for self-definition. While this can occur in both minority and majority cultures, Lipsitz argues that when the majority culture appropriates a minority culture, it must be careful to acknowledge the specific socio-historical context and significance of those cultural forms to avoid perpetuating unequal power relations. Historically, areas with high cultural exchange, like trade routes in southwestern Asia and southeastern Europe, have been sites of debated cultural appropriation. Some scholars argue that Ottoman and Egyptian architectural traditions have been falsely attributed to Persian or Arab cultures.

In more recent times, the debate around cultural appropriation continues. Mehgan Gallagher used examples like the Washington Redskins mascot to illustrate the controversy surrounding representation of Native Americans in sports. Jason Baird Jackson proposed a model for understanding cultural appropriation, defining it as the "structural inversion of assimilation," where a powerful group takes aspects of a subordinated group's culture and makes them their own. A 2023 study by Kunst, Lefringhausen, and Zagefka explored the distinction between appropriation and genuine cultural change, highlighting the "dilemma of cultural ownership" and the impact of power disparities. A 2024 study by Cruz, Seo, and Scaraboto examined how consumers self-authorize their consumption of potentially appropriated media, using the K-pop fandom as a case study.^[2]

Defining "Minority Group"[]

The definition of "minority culture" is complex and context-dependent. It's not solely determined by numerical population size, although that can be a factor. More importantly, it refers to a group that experiences marginalization, discrimination, or subordination within a dominant culture due to factors like ethnicity, religion, language, sexual orientation, gender identity, or other social characteristics. This subordination can manifest in various ways, including limited access to resources, systemic discrimination, and lack of representation in positions of power. It's important to acknowledge that minority status is not fixed and can shift depending on the specific context and power dynamics at play.

Defining "minority culture" goes beyond simple population numbers. It encompasses groups experiencing marginalization or subordination within a dominant culture. While often intersecting with race and ethnicity, minority status can also be based on other factors. For instance, the Frisian people in the Netherlands, despite being predominantly white, are a recognized ethnic minority due to their distinct language and cultural traditions, which have faced historical pressure from the dominant Dutch culture. Similarly, within the United States, Japanese people as a whole are not considered a minority group, but Japanese-Americans, due to their historical experiences of discrimination and marginalization within the U.S., are considered a minority group.

Other examples of minority groups not defined solely by race include religious minorities, such as Jewish people in many Western countries, or LGBTQ+ individuals, who face discrimination and marginalization regardless of their race or ethnicity. People with disabilities also constitute a minority group, as they often encounter systemic barriers and discrimination. Linguistic minorities, like the Welsh in the UK, whose language has faced suppression, also illustrate how minority status can be tied to cultural factors beyond race. These examples highlight that minority status is complex and can be based on a range of social characteristics, including ethnicity, religion, language, sexual orientation, gender identity, and disability, and is defined by the experience of marginalization and power imbalances within a dominant culture above anything else.

It's also important to address the concept of "Oppression Olympics" (e.g., attempting to determine which group is the most oppressed). Each marginalized group has distinct experiences that must be considered, but comparing levels of oppression (e.g., systemic discrimination vs. microaggressions, hate crimes vs. workplace bias) can be counterproductive and divisive. Each group faces different difficulties and forms of discrimination rooted in their specific historical and social context. Rather than ranking oppression, it's better to recognize the interconnectedness of various forms of marginalization and work towards dismantling systems of power that perpetuate inequality.^[3] Focusing on intersectionality, the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender, creating overlapping systems of discrimination or disadvantage, can lead to more productive conversations about cultural appropriation and related issues.