Brutalism

Not to be confused with Neubrutalism or Acid Design, both graphic design trends.

Brutalism, also known as Brutalist Architecture, is an architectural movement that branched off the modernist movement during the 1950s. It began in the United Kingdom, where it was often used for rebuilding projects after World War II. Brutalism began to expand and develop internationally and reached its peak in the 1960s and 70s. It emerged as a reaction against the nostalgia of 1940s architecture.

Brutalist buildings are known for their their use of raw, exposed materials, especially unfinished concrete (béton brut in French), which is the namesake of the style. They often have a monumental and imposing appearance, with large, blocky shapes. Function is very important in Brutalist design, so the buildings are often minimalist, simple, and practical, without unnecessary decorations. Many Brutalist buildings were made using prefabricated parts and repeated modules, similar to Industrial design. Brutalism was often used for public buildings like housing projects, government offices, and cultural centers.

History[]

Etymology[]

The term "Brutalism" originates from the Swedish word "nybrutalism" (new brutalism), coined by architect Hans Asplund in 1950. It is derived from "béton brut," which is the French word for unfinished concrete. Asplund used this term to describe Villa Göth, a house in Uppsala designed by Bengt Edman and Lennart Holm. Various English architects, including Michael Ventris, encountered the term during their visits to Sweden and brought it back to England. Architects Alison and Peter Smithson adopted it and popularized "Brutalism," applying it to their own architectural work and philosophy. The term gained wider recognition through British architectural historian Reyner Banham. In his 1966 book, "The New Brutalism: Ethic or Aesthetic?," Banham used "Brutalism" to define a cluster of architectural approaches emerging in Europe.^[1]

Development[]

Brutalism, also known as New Brutalism, initially described the theory and practice of a small group of young British architects between 1950 and 1960. It broadened to encompass an international architectural approach reflecting social ideals, industrial and vernacular methods, and humane goals. Post-World War II Europe presented architects with limited resources and immense demand, posing an unprecedented challenge. While the post-World War I generation approached rebuilding with revolutionary idealism and trust in technology, the post-World War II generation held less faith in both. This context gave rise to the Brutalist principle: “An ethic, not an aesthetic.”

This new generation believed architecture carried existential weight, building stemmed from ethical action rather than reasoning, and International Style modernism was merely superficial aestheticism. Brutalism's radical approach, not its initial built examples, transformed modernism's accepted conventions. The first built Brutalist work, the Hunstanton Secondary School (1954) by Peter and Alison Smithson, initially appeared to use a Miesian aesthetic of structural clarity. However, it added the dimensions of the mundane, diurnal, and literal to Miesian clarity. The Smithsons then focused on public housing in post-war Europe, though their influential ideas did not result in their own built works at this time.

Other young British architects followed with Brutalist buildings like the Terrace Housing (1956) by Howell, Howell, and Amis, the Langham House Development (1958) by Stirling and Gowan, the Architecture School Extension (1959) by Wilson and Hardy, the Park Hill Development (1961) by the Sheffield City Architect, and the Engineering School Laboratories (1963) by Stirling and Gowan. These projects emphasized structural clarity, spatial simplicity, and material presence, shaping the perception of Brutalism.

The term "Brutalism" likely originated from the French phrase "béton brut" (rough concrete), describing the material qualities of many post-war European buildings due to resource limitations. Le Corbusier's Unite d’Habitation (1946–52) and Maisons Jaoul (1954) were influential in establishing the Brutalist model. The Unite d’Habitation in Marseille showcased unfinished concrete surfaces, while Maisons Jaoul used rough brickwork, tile-surfaced concrete vaults, and raw plywood, blending vernacular building with industrial materials. While a Brutalist building existed in Britain by 1954, Le Corbusier’s works were precursors to the movement. Brutalism contrasted International Style’s smooth white planes and balanced compositions with unfinished, natural-colored surfaces and seemingly awkward arrangements, often exposing mechanical functions. Even when smoothly finished, Brutalist buildings could appear crude.

Though initially British, Brutalism spread to Europe with projects like the Architect’s House (1957) by A. Wogenscky, the Istituto Marchiondi (1959) by V. Vigano, and works by Atelier 5. Le Corbusier's Capitol Complex (1951–65) and La Tourette monastery (1955) further solidified Brutalism with their heroic-scale beton brut. These buildings evoked a peasant or industrial vernacular, using simple materials for modern programs.

Despite its radical appearance, Brutalism had roots in pre-war modernism. Works by Hugo Haering and Antonio Sant'Elia, along with the influence of Peter Behrens, Bruno Taut, and Hans Poelzig, are considered forerunners. Architectural publications like the Architectural Review and Architectural Design also played a role in Brutalism's development and dissemination.

Brutalism reached the United States as well. The Yale Art Gallery Extension (1949–53) by Louis Kahn used selectively coarse or smooth surfaces and classical composition. The Yale Art and Architecture Building (1961–63) by Paul Rudolph, inspired by European models, featured uniformly roughened surfaces and picturesque composition. The Mummers’ Theater (1970) by J. Johansen displayed inconsistent material choices and accidental composition.

Brutalism’s origins illuminate its global influence. Pre-war international modernism, based on industrialization, was largely confined to its countries of origin. While its spread began before 1939, the war interrupted it. Post-war, international modernism triumphed in the United States. However, the first British post-war generation rejected this history, viewing the war as a compromise of the promise of an industrial utopia. They sought an industrially based, but not ideological or political, architecture. Brutalism emerged as a response, employing exposed materials, rough textures, and seemingly awkward compositions.

While the list of genuinely Brutalist buildings is short, its influence was significant. Brutalism’s ethical concerns, challenging accepted views, were more impactful than its aesthetic concerns. It aligned with other post-war phenomena like the works of Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre, Roberto Rossellini, and Vittorio de Sica, reflecting post-war despair and rejection. British writers, painters, and sculptors also displayed a rejection of the war and the past.

Initially, Brutalism seemed limited to 1950s Britain. Its chronicler, Reyner Banham, doubted its future significance. However, this view proved too pessimistic. Brutalism’s ethical aspect continued the principle that design's ultimate test is its social worth. Its aesthetic aspect, assuming social worth is met, follows from material character. Brutalism’s questions about building for the people, virtuous materials, and embodied meaning remain relevant.

Architecture[]

Brutalism emerged in post-World War II Europe as a response to unprecedented circumstances. Architects sought to address limited resources and immense demand, moving away from the pre-war idealism and technological optimism of International Modernism. The Brutalist movement emphasized "an ethic, not an aesthetic," prioritizing ethical action over superficial design. This generation believed architecture held existential weight and that building stemmed from ethical considerations.

Brutalism's architectural characteristics include a strong emphasis on structural clarity, spatial simplicity, and material presence. The movement often employed exposed, unfinished concrete ("béton brut"), rough brickwork, and other raw materials. This directness in material use stemmed from both necessity and a desire to express the inherent qualities of construction. Brutalist buildings often feature bold, geometric forms and repetitive elements, revealing the process of their fabrication. While some structures displayed smooth finishes, even these often appeared crude and ordinary, contrasting with the polished aesthetic of the International Style. This aesthetic, though sometimes perceived as perverse, aimed to convey honesty and social purpose.

Brutalism's influence extended beyond Britain, with examples appearing across Europe and later in the United States. While the movement's core principles remained consistent, variations emerged in response to different contexts and programs. Some Brutalist buildings incorporated vernacular traditions, blending industrial materials with local building practices. Others explored more expressive forms and monumental scales, particularly in public or institutional projects. While the use of béton brut is a common characteristic, it is not the defining one. The key aspects of Brutalism are its honesty of materials, its expression of structure, and its focus on social function over purely aesthetic concerns.

Criticism[]

Brutalist architecture has long been a divisive style. Criticism often revolves around the aesthetic qualities of the buildings. One of the main arguments against the style is about its usage of concrete façades. Its materials often begin to decay in the cloudy, maritime climates found in geographical regions such as Atlantic Europe and New England. In these conditions, the materials become streaked with water stains and moss, mold, and lichen, as well as rust stains from the steel reinforcing bars.

A 2014 article in The Economist observed that campaigns to demolish buildings often target Brutalist ones. In 2005, the British television program Demolition ran a public vote to select twelve buildings that should be demolished, and eight of them were Brutalist.

Other than its climatic context, critics find it unappealing due to its "cold" or "soulless" appearance, which projects an atmosphere of "totalitarianism" or "oppression."^[2] It also has negative associations with urban decay due to materials weathering poorly in certain climates and the surfaces being prone to vandalism by graffiti.

Despite this, the style is still appreciated by many, including architects, and preservation efforts are taking place in the United Kingdom. Many Brutalist buildings are officially protected in their countries of origin. One counterargument is that Brutalism uses its materials in a honest way, unlike many other architectural styles that incorporate a lot of fancy ornamentation.